The key carter behind the growth of DGs from renewable energy resources can be characterized into four core classes, i.
The expansion of DGs introduces various benefits behind these drivers but it results in some challenges like economic and technical ones from the integration of DGs aggressively.
This will affect the grid stability and power system quality as the flow of power changes from unidirectional to bidirectional with a definite voltage level.
Thus the choice of DG injected capacity not only is dependent on the cost and benefit but also will be dependent on the optimized location and size to maintain reduction of high power losses in the system. Literature depicts many optimization methods like conventional and intelligent search methods to solve energy problems.
A wide range of optimization techniques is used so far. Classification of these methods is illustrated as follows: analytical based method, gradient and second-order method, iterative method, and heuristic methods. Conventional methods are very effective but tough in the implementation of real-size problems and require too much computing time, while heuristic methods are founded on simplifying the problem and contributing adequate solutions [ 6 ]. In distributed generation system, the power has radial structure and unidirectional behaviour which is severely affected by the increase in demand and negative impacts on voltage profile and causes PLs at the transmission network, as well as in distribution networks.
Various approaches have been suggested till date to mitigate PLs such as in [ 7 ], where authors have developed an analytical expression to estimate the optimal size for distribution networks DNs with different PL arrangements. Another procedure in [ 8 ] discusses optimization algorithms for reducing PLs in DNs while [ 9 ] explains shuffled frog leaping algorithm to analyzed PLs and optimal sizing of DNs. The optimal distribution sizing and PLs have been also investigated in [ 10 ] using elephant herding optimization method and in [ 11 ] with an estimation through adaptive neurofuzzy logic.
However, the proposed techniques require complex structure for the analysis. A low complexity approach using two-bus Thevenin equivalent model to improve power quality is DNs which has been shown in [ 12 ]; however none of them provides proper analysis for the sizing and optimum location for optimization process. In this paper, we explore sizing and optimum location considering voltage profile improvement and minimization of PLs based on the experimental data acquisition from the Abdul Rehman Baba grid station, Pakistan, and analysis in ETAP.
In this paper, we present an optimal siting for integration of DGs in DNs to improve voltage profile and to minimize PLs not only to address the issue of power shortage faced by many underdeveloped countries, but also to assist power design engineers in analysis of such systems. The system is analyzed for operation at various conditions, like without DG unit, with synchronous DG unit, and with an induction DG unit.
The remaining part of the paper is organized as below. Section 2 elaborates the distributed generation implications on DNs and the proposed approach for improvement of voltage profile and reduction of PLs caused by injecting a DG. Section 3 explains the mathematical modelling of the proposed work.
Section 4 presents test feeder analysis and explores DG units modelling in terms of synchronous and induction generators. Results and discussion are presented in Section 5 , and the paper is concluded in Section 6. Although DG injection has a variety of effects on the electrical power system, it remains an appealing option for future power systems due to its plug-and-play nature, flexibility of operation, and other benefits.
The main feature of connecting DG is the enhancement of overall efficiency of the electrical power system without making significant changes to the existing infrastructure. The transmission loss of electricity in its transport over long distances is usually from 4. Similarly, in addition to the cost of generation, utilities charge customers for the cost of electricity lost owing to transmission from distant generating units.
These expenses can be reduced by putting DG close to the load location. Integrating a DG unit into the system can also aid in peak shaving and power stability reduction [ 13 — 16 ].
Where voltage dips and blackouts are an issue for service providers, DG injection can help reduce power losses and improve voltage profile. The flow of electricity is usually one-way, from the generator to the load, but by introducing DG into the distribution system, the flow of power can be bidirectional.
Injection of DG can reduce power losses in areas where service providers are concerned about voltage dips and blackouts. Distributed generation implementation can enhance the voltage profile of electric service in the distribution system.
Improvement in voltage profile depends upon the size, type, and suitable siting of DG unit in a distribution network. If the DG unit is not injected in a suitable place, it could provoke a negative impact on voltage profile, power losses, and operation of the system. For this purpose, different optimization methods are taken into consideration to settle the optimal location and size of the distributed generation unit to upgrade the performance of the distribution system [ 17 — 20 ].
The DG unit is injected on the location after the analysis of identifying node with maximum power losses. Because power losses differ depending on the type of DG employed and the location of DG installation, an overall optimization is obtained, which is discussed mathematically in the next section.
Different iterative techniques are used for the solution of power flow equations but Newton Raphson method [ 21 , 22 ] has some distinct features of numerical analysis and has lowest complexity. In this particular method, two equations with two unknown variables like Y 1 and Y 2 are solved through quick approximation of the root of a real-valued function.
Take two working variables, such as Y 1 and Y 2 , and set them equal to B 1 as. In the same way,. It is also written as. The difficulty now is to find a solution for and. Expanding equations 3 and 4 ,. Higher order partial derivatives are neglected. In matrix form equations 5 and 6 are shown as. If B 1 0 is selected as the specified value of B 1 minus the calculated value of B 1 and also for B 2 0 ,.
Voltage at any bus D for N buses is shown as. Here P D and Q D are denoted active and reactive powers. Moreover, equation 9 can be further extended as. Equation 13 evaluates reactive power Q D for better prior voltage values at the buses, and Reactive Power Q D is substituted in equation 10 to obtain a new Y D.
In polar form, voltage at bus and line admittance is given as. Substituting equation 14 in 11 ,. Comparing equation 8 with power system,. The solution is obtained from the benefit of DG units injection measured by the reduction of losses and the operational and investment costs acquired in the DG unit injection.
ETAP software is used to study and model the chosen radial feeder because it is one of the most modern and dependable software tools for designing, operating, and planning an electrical power system.
In this study, two different types of DG units are used: synchronous and induction generators. To offer a full examination, these units are injected and studied under various cases.
The following test cases are considered for the analysis. This is the base model, without any DG units, that is assessed for the original circuit, as illustrated in Figure 4.
These data are then used as a baseline against which different situations are evaluated, such as the inclusion of various types of DG units, their placement, and size. The comparison's major goal is to quantify the reduction of PLs and improvement of voltage profile in the distributed power system.
Practically acquired data and results will be used for understanding the other cases. Sum of real and reactive PLs for the base case is shown in Table 1. In this case, the DG unit is being integrated with a system that will only deliver active power or act as a power source with a power factor of unity. This sort of DG will be deployed at various points along the feeder and examined for system power losses. Two subcases are formed by the installation of a synchronous generator serving as a DG unit with a producing capacity of 2.
In Table 2 real and reactive power losses are shown for this subcase. In Table 3 real and reactive power losses are shown for such subcase. It can be seen that power losses are much reduced when DG is injected at bus bar 6 than in the previous subcase. When DG is injected at bus bar 3 one bus bar is in critical condition while when injecting DG at bus bar 6 no bus bar is in critical conditions. So, voltage profile is also improved when DG is injected at bus bar 6.
DG unit in this case will be injected in the system and induce some reactive power along with the provision of active power. DG unit of proper size is inserted in the system at specific locations for analysis purposes. This DG unit will work as an induction machine in its general operation. The analysis for power losses will be taken into consideration afterwards.
In this case, an induction generator with the same capacity, i. For the installation of such a DG unit similar to synchronous DG , two alternative locations are chosen: 1 At first, this DG is installed at bus bar 3 as shown in Figure 7. In Table 4 real and reactive power losses are shown.
The life of a solar power plant projected as 25 years for the financial working. However it will continue generating electricity even after 25 years. This means that if units are generated in 1st year, 90 units wlll be generated after 10 years and 80 units will be generated after 25 years! Solar energy being a sunrise industry literally, many Solar power plant suppliers and vendors have entered the field!
Solar energy companies in Maharashtra are creating awareness and promoting solar power to high consumption customers. Many of them also work to take advantage of the solar power policies in Maharashtra.
The only factor a customer has to ensure from a vendor is that whether the generation of solar power is guaranteed for 25 years! As solar power generation is the only way to recover the investment and later on projected savings. Commercial customers have an added advantage.
The profit making customers can actually, save on income tax by claiming accelerated and additional depreciation. This means that if a customer invests Rs. Which means, instead of paying Rs. That the solar power plant installation has now become commercially viable as cost of installation is going down and electricity tariff rates are going up.
The solar power installation will is now no more dependent on government subsidies and incentives. The major impetus still awaits as the Indian government targets 40 GW of roof top solar power plant installations by !
Bill Amount. What you save is what you earn! Where there is a roof there is a way! Rocket science made simple! How does PV Solar work? A suitably doped P-N junction semiconductor will generate electricity when light falls on it.
This electricity is in the form of a DC current which may be used as it is by a DC device or may be converted by an Inverter to AC current and then used by an AC device.
Will I be able to use solar power during a power outage? A stand-alone solar PV system which has no connection with the discom electricity distribution company, e.
During the night, the system will not generate electricity, but the solar power generated during the daytime, and stored in batteries, can be used. Such stand-alone systems are called off-line or off-grid systems. A lot of solar electricity is generated by on-grid systems which do not have batteries.
In such a system, the solar electricity generated is first used by the connected appliances and excess electricity is fed to the discom grid through a net meter. This excess electricity is available free of charge when not sufficient power is being generated by the solar system, for example, at night.
An on-grid solar system will not work during power outages. Hybrid systems are available which work like a combination of an off-grid and an on-grid system. Such a system requires batteries. Why are you not proposing a stand-alone or hybrid system? A stand-alone system or hybrid is much more costly compared to an on-grid system which makes it economically unviable in an urban setting where there are few power outages.
There is also a major recurring cost of changing batteries every two or three years. Stand-alone and hybrid systems make economical sense only where there are very frequent grid power outages How does net-metering work? The net meter records the amount of power consumed from the grid and the power supplied by the solar system to the grid. The discom bills the customer on the net power consumed i.
What are fixed charges? When you get an electric connection from a discom, there is a certain minimum amount you have to pay whether you consume any electricity or not. This is called a fixed charge. What are variable charges? How are they calculated? Variable charges are those which are levied over and above the fixed charges. These include electricity consumption charges, transmission charges, various surcharges and taxes. For our purpose it is sufficient to know the bill amount and to subtract the fixed charges from that amount.
Generators installed in by Census region. Generators installed in by top five states in capacity additions. Natural gas generators installed in by technology. Natural gas generators installed in at combined-cycle plants by prime mover.
Solar PV generators installed in by Census region. Solar PV generators installed in by top five states in capacity additions. Solar PV generators installed in by PV panel type and tracking system. Solar PV generators installed in by total added capacity at plant. Wind generators installed in by Census region.
Wind generators installed in by plant size. Wind generators installed in by wind class.
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